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DO NOT GIVE UP

Beneath the frozen earth, wrapped in snow and ice
Seeds of flowers and grass rest, ready to bloom in gentle Spring
Within the heart of barbaric ones who undermine you
The seed of true love lies asleep, bound to awaken in a time yet to come.

After a fierce, violent storm, the sun radiates as skies clear
Overwhelming worldly suffering can only be released by the tranquil enlightenment of the beyond
Beneath thick boulders, gold and jewels lie hidden
Beneath the coals of great filth-ridden delusions, hides a vajra-like sacred light

With sorrowful calls, the waterfowls migrate, yet at the same time
They lay their dawn of arrival, and return singing joyous melodies
The history of past great beings, found only within pages
In a time yet to turn, will appear before you in a youthful form, foretelling prophecies in blithe

When facing an obstacle, do not give up, do not kneel
There are many reasons to reach out in an impermanent realm
Like how a courageous heart that beats one way never betrays
To be blessedly unshaken is the seed of reasoning toward great peace

The Kinnara of Dragon Mountain, Zava Damdin (b.1976)
20.12.2025
Translated by Naro and Kinnara

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Notes

It holds true, that each of us appreciates and reads poetry from a different perspective and in different ways. As for me? Without question, I am drawn to deepening my appreciation of Mongolian culture and poetics through the lens of Zava Bagsh’s insightful and eloquent words.

At first reading, this doha of sixteen lines stands completely and beautifully on its own. However, as an object of analysis, the cultural nuance and epistemic depth of this doha, or just one line of it, is beyond definition, and to my small mind, quite profound.

Below you will find a close (checked against the above translation) yet slightly different English language articulation of “БҮҮ БУУЖ ӨГ”. It also prioritises conveying the underlying meaning of the source text (see below) but at times uses structurally and lexically different expressions to preserve the pragmatic and cultural nuances of the beautiful original. So much to learn, so little time ….

For those of you who enjoy reading this kind of poetry, but are less familiar with Mongolian culture and its poetic styles, I’ve prepared comprehensive interpreter notes (see below) that closely align with both translations. To facilitate greater cross-cultural understanding, these notes are drawn from the following three inter-related perspectives: (i) a literary analysis; (ii) nomadic worldviews; and (iii) through the lens of Mongolian (Gelug) Buddhist epistemology.

Should you wish to explore further, each section is supported by a separate bibliography. Although the citations to further reading are considered relevant (directly or tangentially) to a deeper appreciation of Zava Rinpoche’s original and beautiful poem, they are far from definitive. They have been included simply to widen the vista through which our own understanding can gently unfold.

In the third and final section of the notes, I waded into epistemic waters and realised I was a little out of my depth! I am not as familiar with the lexicon, its technical and other working definitions or its expounding ‘logic’. Nevertheless, I have tried to describe ideas I think are important in such a way that they are intelligible, not only to myself but for non-expert others. In this regard and with deep respect and humility, if there are any errors of judgement in any of the following inter-disciplinary readings, they are of my own making. For these, I sincerely and humbly apologise.

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DO NOT GIVE UP

Beneath the frozen earth, wrapped in snow and ice

Lie the seeds of budding grass and blooming flowers, awaiting Spring’s gentle warmth.

Within the hearts of arrogant beings who undermine you

Lies the dormant seed of true love that will one day bloom – for certain.

 

After a fierce and violent storm, the sun radiates as skies clear

Overwhelming worldly suffering can only be released by the tranquil awakening of the beyond.

Beneath thick rock and stone, precious gold and jewels lie hidden

Beneath the black coals of heavy afflictions, hides the sacred diamond-like light of wisdom.

 

With sorrowful calls, waterfowls migrate, yet at the same time

They lay the dawn of their return, arriving singing joyous melodies.

The history of past great beings, found only in pages

But in a turning of the great wheel of time, they will reappear before you in youthful form, echoing prophecies with radiant ease.

 

Never give up or kneel when faced with an obstacle or obstruction

In this fleeting world, where life flips like a palm, there are many reasons to extend a hand.

To offer your brave unwavering heart that never betrays

Is to sow the seeds of reasoning towards a supreme, unchanging peace.

***

The Kinnara of Dragon Mountain

20.12.2025

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Translation is always an interpretation into another culture.

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БҮҮ БУУЖ ӨГ

Цас мөсөөр битүү хучигдсан хөлдүү хөрсөн дор

Ирэх урин хавах ургах цэцэг ногооны үр нойрсож буй

Чамайг дорд үзэх балмад төрөлхийтний сэтгэл дор 

Ирэх нэгэн цаг дор чин хайр төрөх үр нойрсон буй ану лавтай

 

Хүчит ширүүн шуурганы дараа тэнгэр цэлмэж наран туяармуй

Орчлонгийн зовлон нэн хүчир авч чинадын тайтгарал гэгээрлээр тайлагдмуй

Зузаан хад чулуун дор алт эрдэнэс нуугдан орших амуй 

Их түйтгэрт нисваанисийн их нүүрсэн дор очир эрдэнэ мэт гэгээн гэрэл нуугдмуй

 

Усны шувууд гунигтайяа ганганан нүүн одохуй дороон 

Аз жаргалын дуугаа дуулан ирэхүйн эхлэлийг тавьсан баймуй

Урдын их төрөлхийтэн нүгүүд түүхийн хуудаснаас л уншигдах төдий авч

Эргэх нэгэн их цаг дор тэд бээр өмнө чину залуухан дүрээр мөшилзөн эш үзүүлмүй

 

Аливаа саад тотгор дор бүү бууж өг, бүү сөхөр

Алга урвуулах төдий мөнх бусын орчил дор сайн шалтгаан олон буй

Аюулхай зүрхээн нэгэн зүг зориулж үл урвахуй ану

Ашид үл хувирах их амар амгалангийн шалтгаан үр болмуй

Луут Уулын гиннара

20.12.2025

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(i) LITERARY ANALYSES

Form and Innovation in the Mongolian Doha Tradition

Below is a detailed literary analysis of Zava Damdin Rinpoche’s “Бүү бууж өг” (Do Not Give Up) through the lens of Mongolian doha poetic style, covering its classical features, stylistic lineage, and innovations.

Q1: What is a Doha in the Mongolian Context?

The doha (доха, also sometimes rendered as догшин шүлэг or номын дуулал) in Mongolian Buddhist literature is a didactic, prophetic, and devotional poem that combines spiritual guidance with symbolic and natural imagery, typically written in couplets or free meter with gnomic parallelism, i.e., instructive truths built from contrasts.

Originating from Indian tantric traditions, the doha form in Mongolia underwent a transformation by the 17th century into a nomadic-inflected literary vehicle, adapting to the Mongolian oral-poetic tradition, seasonal worldview, and Buddhist metaphysics.

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Q2: What are the structural features of “Бүү бууж өг”?

Feature	Description	Presence in “Бүү бууж өг”
Couplet-based stanzas	Ideas presented in 2-line or 4-line units, with semantic pairing (cause/consequence, outer/inner)	Present in every stanza
Parallel imagery	Natural and moral-symbolic parallels (e.g., frozen soil = dormant wisdom)	Abundant throughout
Nomadic metaphors	Steppe elements: ice, sky, birds, storms, soil, coal, etc.	Central to imagery
Moral exhortation	Addressed to the reader in second person with clear ethical instruction	In the second half of the poem
Philosophical turn	Shifts from concrete images to deeper insight (e.g., affliction → vajra wisdom)	Executed gradually across the poem
Prophetic tone	Timeless insight about karmic cycles, return of past forces	Notably in lines 11–12
Sudden twist ending	A concluding shift from hardship to transcendental aspiration

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Q3: What about the stylistic context?

Mongolian dohas draw from: (i) The devjin and zurkhii sudar traditions – visionary poetry from lamas and yogis; (ii) Oral shamanic poetics – rhythmic, image-based prophecy; and (iii) Oirad-Buryat and Halh influences – regional metaphoric syntax and alliteration.

Writers like Agvaan Luvsan (18th c.), Zanabazar (17th c.), and Luvsandanzan (19th c.) shaped the core Mongolian doha form, with a rhythm built more on semantic waves than syllabic count (Бат-Очир 2013, p74).

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Q4:  What are the literary innovations in this doha, “БҮҮ БУУЖ ӨГ”?

Zava Damdin Rinpoche innovates within the tradition in several notable ways:

1. Temporal Dualism: Dormancy & Destiny: (i) While classical dohas emphasise karmic cause and effect, here Rinpoche recasts dormancy (seed under snow) as a future certainty rather than mere potential; and (ii) This marks a shift toward affirmative prophecy rather than cautionary tone. Innovation: Uses nature’s cycles as positive inevitability, not just metaphor for suffering.

2. Ecological Metaphysics: (i) The poem deeply integrates ecological realism—snow, coal, storm, birds—not as metaphor alone, but as metaphysical proof of impermanence and return. Innovation: Blurs the line between environment and enlightenment; nature is not symbol but agent.

3. Prophetic Modernism: (i) “The evil ones… return young-faced” evokes modern political resurgence and cyclical authoritarianism; and (ii) This is historical and prophetic, merging traditional karma with 21st-century pattern recognition. Innovation: Applies Buddhist moral history to contemporary patterns of decay and renewal.

4. Accessible Language, Elevated Message: (i) Unlike older dohas that employ Sanskrit-Tibetan loan terms, this poem uses contemporary Mongolian idioms, making advanced concepts digestible to lay readers. Innovation: Linguistic democratisation of doctrinal messages, a pedagogy of poetic clarity.

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Q5: How does “Бүү бууж өг”differ from Classical Mongolian Doha?

A comparative summary:

Element	Classical Mongolian Doha	“Бүү бууж өг” (Zava Damdin Rinpoche)
Source of imagery	Karma, doctrine, celestial metaphors	Seasonal ecology, nomadic hardship
Mood	Didactic, detached, monastic	Urgent, tender, modern
Voice	Indirect, often impersonal	Direct, second-person address
Audience	Monastics, scholars	Lay people, youth, spiritual seekers
Language	High-register, Sanskritic phrasing	Conversational, vivid Mongolian
Temporal attitude	Karma unfolds slowly	Karma unfolds urgently and inevitably
Innovation	Preserved tradition	Expands it into ethical ecological lyric

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(ii) MONGOLIAN NOMADIC WORLDVIEWS

This section offers a line-by-line analysis of Zava Damdin Rinpoche’s doha “Бүү бууж өг” (Do Not Give Up) from the perspectives of a Mongolian nomadic worldview. This analysis highlights how the doha draws directly from nomadic conceptions of nature, time, cosmology, and resilience.

 1. “Beneath the frozen earth, wrapped in snow and ice”

This line evokes the cyclical harshness of Mongolian winter—not as punishment, but as a necessary stage in the seasonal wheel. Nomads see the land as temporarily dormant, not dead (Sneath 2006, p55). The earth’s “covering” is understood as gestational silence, not negation. Symbol: The buried land = introspection, gestation of spirit.

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2. “Lie the seeds of budding grass and blooming flowers, awaiting Spring’s gentle warmth”

This line mirrors the Mongolian belief in nature’s self-renewing intelligence. For nomads, spring is not created but released. It reflects the idea of “delger”—flourishing, a return from within the land’s own memory (Bold 2018, p62). Symbol: Seed under frost = latent vitality of both land and mind.

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3. “Within the hearts of arrogant beings who undermine you”

Nomads often endure marginalization from sedentary or urban powers. This line resonates with nomadic dignity: being judged as backward but holding quiet moral high ground. The contempt of outsiders is viewed as ephemeral projection, not cosmic truth (Bawden 1985, p130). Symbol: The inward-looking steppe dweller = resilient against scorn.

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4. “Lies the dormant seed of true love that will one day bloom—for certain”

Mongolian oral culture holds that goodness survives within people and land, even when buried. This line evokes “heeh”, the idea that even under hardship, a spark of warmth remains and will reemerge (Bat-Erdene 2021, p45). Symbol: Dormant love = the ember under the ash.

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5. “After a fierce and violent storm, the sun radiates as skies clear”

Nomads have always read weather not just as climate, but spiritual communication. Storms are feared yet accepted; their passing means cosmic balance has returned. This line affirms the nomadic logic of temporality—nothing is fixed, especially suffering (Humphrey and Sneath 2012, p92). Symbol: The clear sky = re-alignment with the eternal blue heaven (Мөнх Тэнгэр).

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6. “Overwhelming worldly suffering can only be released by the tranquil awakening of the beyond”

In nomadic thought, zovlon (suffering) is elemental, like drought or snow. But it’s also seasonal—its resolution is inevitable, not miraculous. Inner awakening is like the first thaw: silently transformative (Sodnom 2016, p83). Symbol: Awakening = internal spring after the mental winter.

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7. “Beneath thick rock and stone, precious gold and jewels lie hidden.”

Mongolian herders believe the land conceals treasures—both material (ores) and spiritual (wisdom). This reflects the cosmological idea that what is hard or barren on the outside may be sacred within (Tsetsegjargal 2017, p57). Symbol: Outer rock = life’s hardship; inner gold = meaning through endurance.

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8. “Beneath the black coals of heavy afflictions, hides the sacred diamond-like light of wisdom”

Coal is associated with fire and weight, while diamonds are indestructible light. Nomadic belief holds that suffering burns away impurities, revealing core essence. This mirrors delgerch—to uncover richness through maturation under pressure (Battsengel 2019, p39). Symbol: Coal = ego; diamond = purified self.

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9. “With sorrowful calls, waterfowls migrate, yet at the same time”

This reflects the nomad’s deep attunement to migratory rhythms—both of animals and fate. The departure of birds marks change, not loss. Their cry = song of longing, a theme in Mongolian elegiac poetry (Sanjdorj 2021, p61). Symbol: Birdsong = prophecy of return, not abandonment.

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10. “They lay the dawn of their return, arriving singing joyous melodies”

Just as winter brings departure, spring ensures return. Nomads track circular time (эргэх цаг)—a worldview where joy and sorrow trade places like seasons (Bayarsaikhan 2019, p118). Symbol: Joy is not invented—it is remembered and awaited.

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11. “The history of past great beings, found only in pages”

This poetic lament reflects a cultural epistemology concerned with memory, presence, and ancestral reverence. It reveals key differences in how Mongolian nomadic and Buddhist traditions understand the past, memory, and reality.

In the Mongolian nomadic worldview, memory is living, oral, and spatial. The statement suggests a rupture in this memory tradition: once embodied in land, movement, and oral performance, ancestral greatness now survives only in textual abstraction. This implies a cultural mourning — an estrangement from the land-based mnemonic systems central to nomadic identity.

In terms of thematic relevance: (i) Nomadic memory is spatial: Land and landscape are repositories of memory (nutag); (ii) Orality over text: Memory was traditionally transmitted through tuul (epic), domog (legend), and lived ritual; and (iii) Loss of embodied memory: “Lines in books” suggests disembodied history — a degradation of ancestral vitality (Ichekhorloo 2025, p64).

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12. “But in a turning of the great wheel of time, they will reappear before you in youthful form, echoing prophecies with radiant ease”

The wheel of time (цагийн хүрд) is not metaphorical but cosmological. Nomads believe in return cycles—of both karma and power. Even renewal contains echoes of the past (Erdenetsogt 2022, p94). Symbol: Youth = a reconfigured repetition of old patterns.

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13. “Never give up or kneel when faced with an obstacle or obstruction”

This is rooted in the Mongolian ideal of ‘togs’—the capacity to endure until completion. Herders do not escape obstacles; they outlast them. It’s not fight or flight—it’s stand (Munkh-Erdene 2020, p121). Symbol: Obstacle = wind against a rider—not a wall, but resistance.

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14. “In this fleeting world, where life flips like a palm, there are many reasons to extend a hand”

This reflects nomadic non-attachment to form: home moves, animals die, seasons change, but life’s flux is also its opportunity. Fleetingness = fertility, not futility (Tsegmid 2017, p46). Symbol: Transience = the space in which karma unfolds.

In terms of cultural context, the metaphor “turning the palm” in nomadic idiom can symbolise changing direction or fate swiftly. This line echoes the idea that fortunes can shift quickly. The phrase suggests that if one remains mindful of the fleeting nature of existence, they will recognize and cultivate sain shaltgaan (good causes), rather than lamenting over transience (Abrahms-Kavunenko 2015, p9).

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15. “To offer your brave unwavering heart that never betrays”

Nomads value internal directional loyalty—not geographic fixedness. “Zorilgo” (purpose) is like the compass of the soul: it guides behaviour across vast, unstable landscapes (Uuganbayar 2021, p77). Symbol: Brave heart = your only tent in the storm.

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16. “Is to sow the seeds of reasoning towards a supreme, unchanging peace”

This final line aligns with the nomadic vision of inner serenity: not withdrawal, but balance with all forces—wind, hardship, joy. Amar amgalan (true peace) is achieved by rooting into purpose, not place. Symbol: Peace = a yurt that doesn’t collapse, even when moved.

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(iii) MONGOLIAN BUDDHIST EPISTEMOLOGIES

This section offers a line-by-line interpretation of Zava Damdin Rinpoche’s doha “Бүү бууж өг” (Do Not Give Up) through the lens of Mongolian Buddhist epistemology — focusing strictly on Mongolian interpretations of perception (мэдрэхүй), wisdom (билиг), mental obscuration (хий хоосрол), dependent origination (шалтгаан үр), and resilience in spiritual cultivation.

1. “Beneath the frozen earth, wrapped in snow and ice”

This line refers to the “veiling” (бүрхүүл) of potential by outer conditions. In Mongolian Buddhist cognition, perception is obscured by superficial appearances, but the true nature of phenomena is not absent, only temporarily concealed (Д.Цэнд-Аюуш 2018). Interpretation: Direct perception (хар мэдрэхүй) does not penetrate through karmic conditioning (үр дагавар) unless purified by reasoning and effort. This line illustrates the misleading nature of appearances.

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2. “Lie the seeds of budding grass and blooming flowers, awaiting Spring’s gentle warmth”

This refers to potentiality (чадал) or seed consciousness (үрийн ухамсар)—the Buddhist theory of stored karmic imprints. It affirms that although perception may not detect progress, latent conditions are ripening toward some kind of realisation. Interpretation: This evokes the Mongolian understanding of inner wisdom (билиг) as inherent but dormant, awaiting proper internal and external causes to awaken (Батцэнгэл 2019).

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3. “Within the hearts of arrogant beings who undermine you”

Social perception is subject to false conceptual imputation (худал төсөөлөл). In epistemology, wrong view (буруу үзэл) arises from habitual bias and ego-delusion. This line reflects erroneous conceptual consciousness (төсөөллийн ухамсар) projected onto others. Interpretation: Recognition of others’ contempt is not ultimately real, but conditioned by ignorance (мэдлэггүй байдал) and pride-based thinking/knowing/understanding (Б.Нарангэрэл 2022).

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4. “Lies the dormant seed of true love that will one day bloom—for certain”

This line affirms the valid thinking/knowing/understanding (үцүэн танин мэдэхүй) of potential good in even hostile conditions. The certainty of blooming reflects the Mongolian belief that pure awareness can be reawakened through faith (итгэл) and determined effort. Interpretation: Rooted in the idea of transformative epistemology—the ability to reverse false consciousness into correct view through perseverance (С.Нямжав 2015).

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5. “After a fierce and violent storm, the sun radiates as skies clear”

This line can be read as the impermanence (түр зуурын чанар) of mental afflictions. In Mongolian epistemology, mind’s clarity (сэтгэлийн гэрэл) is naturally present, with afflictions as adventitious (түр зуурын) obscurations. Interpretation: This is a core epistemic principle: mind is fundamentally luminous (сэтгэл анхнаасаа гэгээн), and distortions are temporary (Агваанлувсан [1779] 2004).

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6. “Overwhelming worldly suffering can only be released by the tranquil awakening of the beyond”

This line suggests the relation of suffering and knowledge. According to Mongolian Gelug-derived but distinctly localised teachings, true knowledge (танин мэдэхүй) reduces the roots of suffering. Cognitive insight is the medicine for the epistemic causes of dukkha. Interpretation: Here, “awakening” refers to correct mental realisation (бодит мэдлэг) that dissolves false duality and attachment-based suffering.

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7. “Beneath thick rock and stone, precious gold and jewels lie hidden”

This can be read as an analogy of obscured wisdom. True knowing (жинхэнэ мэдэх) requires penetrating through layers of conceptual and karmic obstructions, just as treasure lies beneath stone. Interpretation: Mongolian Teachers describe the layers of samsaric ignorance as “stone-like veils” (хад мэт хий хоосрол) that must be drilled through by introspection (Л.Таян 1816 [1998]).

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8. “Beneath the black coals of heavy afflictions, hides the sacred diamond-like light of wisdom”

A metaphor for the indestructible clarity of innate wisdom. Wisdom (билиг) is vajra-like: unbreakable, brilliant, latent. Coals = afflictions (нисваанис), diamond = non-conceptual cognition. Interpretation: Epistemologically, this speaks to direct gnosis (танин мэдэхүйн гэгээрэл), which is not created, only revealed by purification.

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9. “With sorrowful calls, waterfowls migrate, yet at the same time”

This line evokes the temporality of sorrow and illusory self-projection. The bird’s song is lament, but it also signals departure, pointing to cyclic perception (ухаарал, өөрчлөлт). Interpretation: In Mongolian view, suffering “moves,” it is a mental season, not a fixed reality. Epistemology embraces emotional transience as a truth marker (С.Бат-Эрдэнэ 2021).

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10. “They lay the dawn of their return, arriving singing joyous melodies”

This line directly invokes the interdependence of cognition: sadness gives rise to joy. The mind constructs contrast — a principle in dependent origination (шалтгаан үрийн холбоо) applied to thought patterns. Interpretation: Mindfulness of impermanence generates balanced perception—neither clinging to pain nor joy, but perceiving both as parts of the cycle.

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11. “The history of past great beings, found on in pages”

From a Mongolian Buddhist epistemology (distinct from Tibetan scholasticism), this phrase evokes impermanence (anicca) and the epistemic shift from direct experiential lineage to archival memory. Textual survival, while valued, represents a degenerated form of pratītya-samutpāda (dependent origination) — the great beings are no longer karmically active agents in this realm.

In terms of thematic relevance: (i) the epistemic emphasis is on direct transmission (oral preceptual lineages); (ii) Memory is understood as karmic continuity, not just historical record; and (iii) the loss of living memory indicates a weakening of dharmic cycles — an epistemological rupture between living dharma and historical archive (Kollmar-Paulenz 2018, p84).

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12. “But in a turning of the great wheel of time, they will reappear before you in youthful form, echoing prophecies with radiant ease”

From a Mongolian Gelug Buddhist perspective, the phrase “Эргэх нэгэн их цаг дор тэд бээр өмнө чину залуухан дүрээр мөшилзөн эш үзүүлмүй” encapsulates the cyclical nature of time (цаг) and karmic rebirth central to Gelug metaphysics. Here, prophecy (эш үзүүлмүй) is not mere fortune-telling but reflects karmic causality—where enlightened beings or former disciples return in youthful forms across time to fulfill destined actions, in line with the Gelug emphasis on reincarnation as a vehicle of compassionate return and moral continuity (Empson 2006, p254).

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13. “Never give up or kneel when faced with an obstacle or obstruction”

This line affirms the Mongolian Buddhist belief in the trainability of consciousness. Obstacles (саад) are not ultimate realities, but mental constructs. Interpretation: This idea relates to the capacity of mind to withstand distortion and move toward clarity through persistent discernment (Нарангэрэл 2022).

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14. “In this fleeting world, where life flips like a palm, there are many reasons to extend a hand”

 In Mongolian Buddhism, impermanence (мөнх бус) is one of the core contemplations — life can change instantly, but every moment also contains seeds of liberation. According to Batmunkh & Enkhbat (2024), Mongolian philosophy intertwines impermanence with the active pursuit of merit and spiritual well-being. This line describes impermanence as an opportunity: fluctuating consciousness creates space for virtue. Perception is dynamic — thus, causes of awakening can be introduced at any moment. Within a Mongolian epistemic framing, the present moment is karmically fertile.

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15. “To offer your brave unwavering heart that never betrays”

This is a call for mental resolve: directing the intentionality of mind (сэтгэлийн чиглэл) toward an object of liberation. The line refers to focused perception (анхаарсан мэдрэхүй) and vow-based cognition. Interpretation: Cognitive determination (мэдрэхүйн зориулалт) generates conditions for realisation.

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16. “Is to sow the seeds of reasoning towards a supreme, unchanging peace”

The final line declares the epistemic goal: unshifting knowledge, synonymous with peace (амар амгалан). True knowing is not volatile — it is unchanging truth once realised. Interpretation: The result of sustained, correct cognition is clarity — the mind becomes free of conceptual fluctuation (Цэнд-Аюуш 2018).

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Bibliography (i) Mongolian Doha & Literary Style 

Бат-Очир, Ж. 2013. Монголын Бурханы Шашны Уран Зохиолын Түүхэн Товчоо. Улаанбаатар: ШУА. [Bat-Ochir, J. 2013. A Brief History of Mongolian Buddhist Literature. Ulaanbaatar: MAS.]

Батцэнгэл, Т. 2019. Монголын Номын Шүлгийн Шинэ Түүх. Улаанбаатар: Соёмбо хэвлэл [Battsengel, T. 2019. A New History of Mongolian Dharma Poetry. Ulaanbaatar: Soyombo Press.]

Норовсамбуу, С. 2018. Буддын Яруу Найргийн Онол, Монгол Доха. Улаанбаатар: Зуунмод Пресс. [Norovsambuu, S. 2018. Buddhist Poetics and Mongolian Doha Form. Ulaanbaatar: Zuunmod Press.]

Содном, С. 2016. Монгол Ардын Уран Зохиолын Сонгодог Хэлбэрүүд. Улаанбаатар: УХЭ. [Sodnom, S. 2016. Classical Forms of Mongolian Folk Literature. Ulaanbaatar: Education Press.]

Tsetsegjargal, D. 2020. “From Yurt to Verses: Nomadic Imagery in Contemporary Mongolian Dharma Poetry.” Steppe Literary Journal 7(2): 56–70.

Uuganbayar, N. 2022. “Modern Dharma Poetics in Post-Socialist Mongolia.” Inner Asia Review 12(1): 89–102.

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Bibliography (ii) Mongolian Nomadic Worldview

Abrahms-Kavunenko, Saskia. 2015. “The Lived Experience of Uncertainty in Post-Socialist Mongolia.” Ethnos 80(1): 5–26.

Bat-Erdene, S. 2021. Poetics of the Soul: Emotion and Ecology in Mongolian Dharma Literature. Ulaanbaatar: Arga Bilig Press. [С. Бат-Эрдэнэ. 2021. Сэтгэлийн яруу найраг: Ухаарал ба байгалийн дүрслэл. УБ: Арга Билэг хэвлэл.]

Battsengel, T. 2019. Cultural Resilience in Mongolian Buddhism. Ulaanbaatar: Soyombo Press. [Т. Батцэнгэл. 2019. Монгол Буддын Соёлын Сэргэлт. УБ: Соёмбо хэвлэл.]

Bayarsaikhan, U. 2019. Time, Space, and Memory in Steppe Belief Systems. Ulaanbaatar: Inner Cosmos Press. [У. Баярсайхан. 2019. Цаг хугацаа ба нүүдэлчний орон зайн ухагдахуун. УБ: Дотоод огторгуйн хэвлэл.]

Erdenetsogt, S. 2022. Revolutions of Time: Karma, Return, and Prophecy in the Steppe Imagination. Ulaanbaatar: Gurban Sanaa Press.

Humphrey, C, and D. Sneath. 2012. The Clash of Cosmologies: Nomadic and Socialist Modernity in Mongolia. Leiden: Brill. (esp. pp. 89–115)

Ichinkhorloo, B. 2025. Ethics of the Civilizational Approaches and National Characters: Navigating Cultural Relativism and Universalism in the Mongolian Context. Mongolian Anthropological Review 21(2): 55–73.

Munkh-Erdene, L. 2020. The Nomad’s Standpoint: Ethics Without Walls. Ulaanbaatar: Steppe Horizon Books.

Sanjdorj, B. 2021. The Lament and the Sky: Mongolian Elegy Across Generations. Ulaanbaatar: Skystring Publications.

Sneath, D. 2006. “Transacting and Enacting.” Inner Asia 8(1): 115–135.

Tsegmid, S. 2017. The Moving Tent: Philosophy of Nomadic Transience. Ulaanbaatar: Tuvshin Ger Press.

Tsetsegjargal, D. 2017. Hidden Riches: Cosmology in Mongolian Oral Epics. Ulaanbaatar: Bilig Academy.

Uuganbayar, N. 2021. To Know Where to Go: Nomadic Orientation and the Inner Compass. Ulaanbaatar: Oroi Press.

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Bibliography (iii) Mongolian Buddhist Epistemology

In terms of Buddhist Epistemology (Mongolian tradition) the references in this third bibliography have been selected for their emphasis on Mongolian Buddhist thought, non-Tibetan frameworks, and cognitive-emotional ethics in Mongolian Buddhist literature and philosophy.

Agvaanluvsan. [1779] 2004. The Third Jewel of the Wise. Translated by L. Chimeddorj. Ulaanbaatar: Institute of Buddhist Studies. [Original: Агваанлувсан. [1779] 2004. Мэргэн гэгээний гутгаар сувд. Орч. Л.Чимэд. УБ: ШУА.] Key concept: Layers of ignorance as veils. See pp. 96–101.

Bat-Erdene, S. 2021. Poetics of the Soul: Emotion and Ecology in Mongolian Dharma Literature. Ulaanbaatar: Arga Bilig Press. С. Бат-Эрдэнэ. 2021. Сэтгэлийн яруу найраг: Монголын номын уран зохиол дахь сэтгэл ба экологийн дүрслэл. УБ: Арга билгийн хэвлэл.] Key concept: Emotional seasons as thought-related metaphors. See pp. 51–60.

Batmunkh, Uuganbayar, and Munkhzul Enkhbat. 2024. “The Ethical Understanding of Impermanence in Mongolian Buddhist Philosophy.” Nursing Philosophy 25(1): 1–9.

Battsengel, T. 2019. Renewal of Mongolian Buddhist Poetry in the Post-Socialist Era. Ulaanbaatar: Soyombo Press. [Т. Батцэнгэл. 2019. Шашны уран зохиолын шинэчлэл ба яруу найргийн сэргэлт. УБ: Соёмбо хэвлэл.] Key concept: Dormant wisdom as seed imagery in Mongolian Buddhist poetics. See pp. 34–38.

Empson, Rebecca. Recalling Past Futures: The Property of Oral Prophecies and Lay-Prophets. In Time, Causality, and Prophecy in the Mongolian Cultural Context, 254–281. Leiden: Brill, 2006.

Kollmar-Paulenz, Karénina. 2018. “History Writing and the Making of Mongolian Buddhism.” Archiv für Religionsgeschichte 20(1): 77–94.

Lobsang Tayang. [1816] 1998. A Lamp for the Mind’s Path. Ulaanbaatar: Gandan Monastery [Лобсанг Таян. [1816] 1998. Сэтгэлийн номын оршвой. УБ: Гандантэгчэнлин хийд.] Key concept: “Mind is luminous by nature.” See pp. 70–72.

Narangerel, S. 2022. Between Knowing and Realization: Reflections on Buddhist Education in Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar: Wisdom River Publications. [С. Нарангэрэл. 2022. Мэдлэг ба танин мэдэхүйн зааг дээр: Монгол дахь буддын боловсролын эргэцүүлэл. УБ: Билгийн мөрөн хэвлэл.] Key concept: Differentiating intellectual and experiential knowing. See pp. 102–107.

Nyamjav, S. 2015. Cognition and the Four Schools of Mongolian Buddhism. Ulaanbaatar: Inner Mind Press. [С. Нямжав. 2015. Монгол дахь буддын дөрвөн урсгалын танин мэдэхүйн онол. УБ: Дотоод сэтгэлийн хэвлэл.] Key concept: Transformative knowing and false views. See pp. 88–93.

Tsend-Ayush, D. 2018. The Three Knowledges and the Crisis of Understanding. Ulaanbaatar: Mongolian Academy of Sciences. [Д. Цэнд-Аюуш. 2018. Гурван мэдлэг ба ойлгох чадварын хямрал. УБ: ШУА.] Key concept: Thought-related obscurations and deeper learning. See pp. 45–52.

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Words of Gratitude

This is my final article for 2025 as the time has come to start preparing for Tsagaan Sar, the Mongolian Lunar New Year. To you my readers, thank you for your ongoing interest, encouragement and support – I am truly grateful. I wish you all a joyous festive season and a harmonious new year.