Here you’ll find an English language interpretation of “БҮҮ БУУЖ ӨГ” by the contemporary Mongolian scholar-poet Zava Damdin (b.1976-).

Introduction

It holds true, that each of us appreciates and reads poetry from a different perspective and in different ways. As for me? Without question, I am drawn to deepening my appreciation of Mongolian culture and poetics through the lens of Zava Bagsh’s insightful and eloquent words.

At first reading, this doha of sixteen lines stands completely and beautifully on its own. However, as an object of analysis, the cultural nuance and epistemic depth of this doha, or just one line of it, is beyond definition, and to my small mind, quite profound.

For my final article for this year, I’ve prepared comprehensive interpreter notes for those of you who enjoy reading poetry, but are less familiar with Mongolian culture and its poetics. These notes are drawn from the following three inter-related perspectives so as to facilitate greater inter-cultural understanding: (i) a literary analysis; (ii) nomadic worldviews; and (iii) through the lens of Mongolian (Gelug) Buddhist epistemology.

Should you wish to explore further, each section is supported by a separate bibliography. Although the citations to further reading are considered relevant (directly or tangentially) to a deeper appreciation of Zava Rinpoche’s original and beautiful poem, they are far from definitive. They have been included so as to widen the vista through which our own understanding can unfold.

In the third and final section of the notes, I waded into epistemic waters and realised I was a little out of my depth! I am not as familiar with the lexicon, its technical and other working definitions or its expounding ‘logic’. Nevertheless, I have tried to describe ideas I think are important in such a way that they are intelligible, not only for myself but for non-expert readers. In this regard and with deep respect and humility, if there are any errors of judgement in any of the following inter-disciplinary reading, they are of my own making. For these, I sincerely and humbly apologise.

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DO NOT GIVE UP

Beneath the frozen earth, buried in snow and ice,

Lie the seeds of Spring’s warmth, of budding grass and blooming flowers.

Beneath the contempt of arrogant beings who look down on you,

Lies the sleeping seed of true love that will one day bloom—certainly.

 

After the harsh and powerful storm, the sky will clear, and sunlight will shine.

Though suffering in this world is immense, it will be dispelled by deep peace and awakening.

Beneath thick rock and stone, precious gold and treasure lie hidden.

And beneath the black coals of heavy afflictions, the diamond-like light of wisdom lies hidden.

 

As migratory birds leave, crying their sorrowful songs,

They mark the beginning of joyful songs when happiness returns.

The evil ones of the past now live only as lines in history books,

But in a turning of the great wheel of time, they return, young-faced, echoing prophecy.

 

Never give up beneath the weight of any obstacle or obstruction.

Even in this fleeting world—where life flips like a palm—many good causes arise.

To offer your brave heart, unwaveringly in one direction,

Is to sow the cause of supreme, unchanging peace.

***

Luut Mountain’s juniper

20.12.2025

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Translation is always an interpretation into another culture.

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БҮҮ БУУЖ ӨГ

Цас мөсөөр битүү хучигдсан хөлдүү хөрсөн дор

Ирэх урин хавах ургах цэцэг ногооны үр нойрсож буй

Чамайг дорд үзэх балмад төрөлхийтний сэтгэл дор 

Ирэх нэгэн цаг дор чин хайр төрөх үр нойрсон буй ану лавтай

 

Хүчит ширүүн шуурганы дараа тэнгэр цэлмэж наран туяармуй

Орчлонгийн зовлон нэн хүчир авч чинадын тайтгарал гэгээрлээр тайлагдмуй

Зузаан хад чулуун дор алт эрдэнэс нуугдан орших амуй 

Их түйтгэрт нисваанисийн их нүүрсэн дор очир эрдэнэ мэт гэгээн гэрэл нуугдмуй

 

Усны шувууд гунигтайяа ганганан нүүн одохуй дороон 

Аз жаргалын дуугаа дуулан ирэхүйн эхлэлийг тавьсан баймуй

Урдын их төрөлхийтэн нүгүүд түүхийн хуудаснаас л уншигдах төдий авч

Эргэх нэгэн их цаг дор тэд бээр өмнө чину залуухан дүрээр мөшилзөн эш үзүүлмүй

 

Аливаа саад тотгор дор бүү бууж өг, бүү сөхөр

Алга урвуулах төдий мөнх бусын орчил дор сайн шалтгаан олон буй

Аюулхай зүрхээн нэгэн зүг зориулж үл урвахуй ану

Ашид үл хувирах их амар амгалангийн шалтгаан үр болмуй

Луут Уулын гиннара

20.12.2025

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(i) LITERARY ANALYSES

Form and Innovation in the Mongolian Doha Tradition

Below is a detailed literary analysis of Zava Damdin Rinpoche’s “Бүү бууж өг” (Do Not Give Up) through the lens of Mongolian doha poetic style, covering its classical features, stylistic lineage, and innovations.

Q1: What is a Doha in the Mongolian Context?

The doha (доха, also sometimes rendered as догшин шүлэг or номын дуулал) in Mongolian Buddhist literature is a didactic, prophetic, and devotional poem that combines spiritual guidance with symbolic and natural imagery, typically written in couplets or free meter with gnomic parallelism, i.e., instructive truths built from contrasts.

Originating from Indian tantric traditions, the doha form in Mongolia underwent a transformation by the 17th century into a nomadic-inflected literary vehicle, adapting to the Mongolian oral-poetic tradition, seasonal worldview, and Buddhist metaphysics.

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Q2: What are the structural features of “Бүү бууж өг”?

Feature	Description	Presence in “Бүү бууж өг”
Couplet-based stanzas	Ideas presented in 2-line or 4-line units, with semantic pairing (cause/consequence, outer/inner)	Present in every stanza
Parallel imagery	Natural and moral-symbolic parallels (e.g., frozen soil = dormant wisdom)	Abundant throughout
Nomadic metaphors	Steppe elements: ice, sky, birds, storms, soil, coal, etc.	Central to imagery
Moral exhortation	Addressed to the reader in second person with clear ethical instruction	In the second half of the poem
Philosophical turn	Shifts from concrete images to deeper insight (e.g., affliction → vajra wisdom)	Executed gradually across the poem
Prophetic tone	Timeless insight about karmic cycles, return of past forces	Notably in lines 11–12
Sudden twist ending	A concluding shift from hardship to transcendental aspiration

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Q3: What about the stylistic context?

Mongolian dohas draw from: (i) The devjin and zurkhii sudar traditions – visionary poetry from lamas and yogis; (ii) Oral shamanic poetics – rhythmic, image-based prophecy; and (iii) Oirad-Buryat and Halh influences – regional metaphoric syntax and alliteration.

Writers like Agvaan Luvsan (18th c.), Zanabazar (17th c.), and Luvsandanzan (19th c.) shaped the core Mongolian doha form, with a rhythm built more on semantic waves than syllabic count (Бат-Очир 2013, p74).

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Q4:  What are the literary innovations in this doha, “БҮҮ БУУЖ ӨГ”?

Zava Damdin Rinpoche innovates within the tradition in several notable ways:

1. Temporal Dualism: Dormancy & Destiny: (i) While classical dohas emphasise karmic cause and effect, here Rinpoche recasts dormancy (seed under snow) as a future certainty rather than mere potential; and (ii) This marks a shift toward affirmative prophecy rather than cautionary tone. Innovation: Uses nature’s cycles as positive inevitability, not just metaphor for suffering.

2. Ecological Metaphysics: (i) The poem deeply integrates ecological realism—snow, coal, storm, birds—not as metaphor alone, but as metaphysical proof of impermanence and return. Innovation: Blurs the line between environment and enlightenment; nature is not symbol but agent.

3. Prophetic Modernism: (i) “The evil ones… return young-faced” evokes modern political resurgence and cyclical authoritarianism; and (ii) This is historical and prophetic, merging traditional karma with 21st-century pattern recognition. Innovation: Applies Buddhist moral history to contemporary patterns of decay and renewal.

4. Accessible Language, Elevated Message: (i) Unlike older dohas that employ Sanskrit-Tibetan loan terms, this poem uses contemporary Mongolian idioms, making advanced concepts digestible to lay readers. Innovation: Linguistic democratisation of doctrinal messages, a pedagogy of poetic clarity.

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Q5: How does “Бүү бууж өг”differ from Classical Mongolian Doha?

A comparative summary:

Element	Classical Mongolian Doha	“Бүү бууж өг” (Zava Damdin Rinpoche)
Source of imagery	Karma, doctrine, celestial metaphors	Seasonal ecology, nomadic hardship
Mood	Didactic, detached, monastic	Urgent, tender, modern
Voice	Indirect, often impersonal	Direct, second-person address
Audience	Monastics, scholars	Lay people, youth, spiritual seekers
Language	High-register, Sanskritic phrasing	Conversational, vivid Mongolian
Temporal attitude	Karma unfolds slowly	Karma unfolds urgently and inevitably
Innovation	Preserved tradition	Expands it into ethical ecological lyric

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(ii) MONGOLIAN NOMADIC WORLDVIEWS

This section offers a line-by-line analysis of Zava Damdin Rinpoche’s doha “Бүү бууж өг” (Do Not Give Up) from the perspectives of a Mongolian nomadic worldview. This analysis highlights how the doha draws directly from nomadic conceptions of nature, time, cosmology, and resilience.

 1. “Beneath the frozen earth, buried in snow and ice,”

This line evokes the cyclical harshness of Mongolian winter—not as punishment, but as a necessary stage in the seasonal wheel. Nomads see the land as temporarily dormant, not dead (Sneath 2006, p55). The earth’s “covering” is understood as gestational silence, not negation. Symbol: The buried land = introspection, gestation of spirit.

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2. “Lie the seeds of Spring’s warmth, of budding grass and blooming flowers.”

This line mirrors the Mongolian belief in nature’s self-renewing intelligence. For nomads, spring is not created but released. It reflects the idea of “delger”—flourishing, a return from within the land’s own memory (Bold 2018, p62). Symbol: Seed under frost = latent vitality of both land and mind.

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3. “Beneath the contempt of arrogant beings who look down on you,”

Nomads often endure marginalization from sedentary or urban powers. This line resonates with nomadic dignity: being judged as backward but holding quiet moral high ground. The contempt of outsiders is viewed as ephemeral projection, not cosmic truth (Bawden 1985, p130). Symbol: The inward-looking steppe dweller = resilient against scorn.

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4. “Lies the sleeping seed of true love that will one day bloom—certainly.”

Mongolian oral culture holds that goodness survives within people and land, even when buried. This line evokes “heeh”, the idea that even under hardship, a spark of warmth remains and will reemerge (Bat-Erdene 2021, p45). Symbol: Dormant love = the ember under the ash.

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5. “After the harsh and powerful storm, the sky will clear, and sunlight will shine.”

Nomads have always read weather not just as climate, but spiritual communication. Storms are feared yet accepted; their passing means cosmic balance has returned. This line affirms the nomadic logic of temporality—nothing is fixed, especially suffering (Humphrey and Sneath 2012, p92). Symbol: The clear sky = re-alignment with the eternal blue heaven (Мөнх Тэнгэр).

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6. “Though suffering in this world is immense, it will be dispelled by deep peace and awakening.”

In nomadic thought, zovlon (suffering) is elemental, like drought or snow. But it’s also seasonal—its resolution is inevitable, not miraculous. Inner awakening is like the first thaw: silently transformative (Sodnom 2016, p83). Symbol: Awakening = internal spring after the mental winter.

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7. “Beneath thick rock and stone, precious gold and treasure lie hidden.”

Mongolian herders believe the land conceals treasures—both material (ores) and spiritual (wisdom). This reflects the cosmological idea that what is hard or barren on the outside may be sacred within (Tsetsegjargal 2017, p57). Symbol: Outer rock = life’s hardship; inner gold = meaning through endurance.

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8. “And beneath the black coals of heavy afflictions, the diamond-like light of wisdom lies hidden.”

Coal is associated with fire and weight, while diamonds are indestructible light. Nomadic belief holds that suffering burns away impurities, revealing core essence. This mirrors delgerch—to uncover richness through maturation under pressure (Battsengel 2019, p39). Symbol: Coal = ego; diamond = purified self.

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9. “As migratory birds leave, crying their sorrowful songs,”

This reflects the nomad’s deep attunement to migratory rhythms—both of animals and fate. The departure of birds marks change, not loss. Their cry = song of longing, a theme in Mongolian elegiac poetry (Sanjdorj 2021, p61). Symbol: Birdsong = prophecy of return, not abandonment.

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10. “They mark the beginning of joyful songs when happiness returns.”

Just as winter brings departure, spring ensures return. Nomads track circular time (эргэх цаг)—a worldview where joy and sorrow trade places like seasons (Bayarsaikhan 2019, p118). Symbol: Joy is not invented—it is remembered and awaited.

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11. “The evil ones of the past now live only as lines in history books,”

For nomads, evil regimes or corrupt leaders are like droughts or wolves—destructive but passing. They become part of oral-historical memory, but not feared forever (Bumochir 2013, p70). Symbol: History = pasture that burns but regrows.

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12. “But in a turning of the great wheel of time, they return, young-faced, echoing prophecy.”

The wheel of time (цагийн хүрд) is not metaphorical but cosmological. Nomads believe in return cycles—of both karma and power. Even renewal contains echoes of the past (Erdenetsogt 2022, p94). Symbol: Youth = rebranded repetition of old patterns.

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13. “Never give up beneath the weight of any obstacle or obstruction.”

This is rooted in the Mongolian ideal of ‘togs’—the capacity to endure until completion. Herders do not escape obstacles; they outlast them. It’s not fight or flight—it’s stand (Munkh-Erdene 2020, p121). Symbol: Obstacle = wind against a rider—not a wall, but resistance.

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14. “Even in this fleeting world—where life flips like a palm—many good causes arise.”

This reflects nomadic non-attachment to form: home moves, animals die, seasons change, but life’s flux is also its opportunity. Fleetingness = fertility, not futility (Tsegmid 2017, p46). Symbol: Transience = the space in which karma unfolds.

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15. “To offer your brave heart, unwaveringly in one direction,”

Nomads value internal directional loyalty—not geographic fixedness. “Zorilgo” (purpose) is like the compass of the soul: it guides behaviour across vast, unstable landscapes (Uuganbayar 2021, p77). Symbol: Brave heart = your only tent in the storm.

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16. “Is to sow the cause of supreme, unchanging peace.”

This final line aligns with the nomadic vision of inner serenity: not withdrawal, but balance with all forces—wind, hardship, joy. Amar amgalan (true peace) is achieved by rooting into purpose, not place. Symbol: Peace = a yurt that doesn’t collapse, even when moved.

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(iii) MONGOLIAN BUDDHIST EPISTEMOLOGIES

This section offers a line-by-line interpretation of Zava Damdin Rinpoche’s doha “Бүү бууж өг” (Do Not Give Up) through the lens of Mongolian Buddhist epistemology — focusing strictly on Mongolian interpretations of perception (мэдрэхүй), wisdom (билиг), mental obscuration (хий хоосрол), dependent origination (шалтгаан үр), and resilience in spiritual cultivation.

1. “Beneath the frozen earth, buried in snow and ice,”

Meaning in terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This line refers to the “veiling” (бүрхүүл) of potential by outer conditions. In Mongolian Buddhist cognition, perception is obscured by superficial appearances, but the true nature of phenomena is not absent, only temporarily concealed (Д.Цэнд-Аюуш 2018). Interpretation: Direct perception (хар мэдрэхүй) does not penetrate through karmic conditioning (үр дагавар) unless purified by reasoning and effort. This line illustrates the misleading nature of appearances.

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2. “Lie the seeds of Spring’s warmth, of budding grass and blooming flowers.”

Meaning in terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This refers to potentiality (чадал) or seed consciousness (үрийн ухамсар)—the Buddhist theory of stored karmic imprints. It affirms that although perception may not detect progress, latent conditions are ripening toward some kind of realisation. Interpretation: This evokes the Mongolian understanding of inner wisdom (билиг) as inherent but dormant, awaiting proper internal and external causes to awaken (Батцэнгэл 2019).

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3. “Beneath the contempt of arrogant beings who look down on you,”

Meaning in terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): Social perception is subject to false conceptual imputation (худал төсөөлөл). In epistemology, wrong view (буруу үзэл) arises from habitual bias and ego-delusion. This line reflects erroneous conceptual consciousness (төсөөллийн ухамсар) projected onto others. Interpretation: Recognition of others’ contempt is not ultimately real, but conditioned by ignorance (мэдлэггүй байдал) and pride-based thinking/knowing/understanding (Б.Нарангэрэл 2022).

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4. “Lies the sleeping seed of true love that will one day bloom—certainly.”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This affirms the valid thinking/knowing/understanding (үцүэн танин мэдэхүй) of potential good in even hostile conditions. The certainty of blooming reflects the Mongolian belief that pure awareness can be reawakened through faith (итгэл) and determined effort. Interpretation: Rooted in the idea of transformative epistemology—the ability to reverse false consciousness into correct view through perseverance (С.Нямжав 2015).

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5. “After the harsh and powerful storm, the sky will clear, and sunlight will shine.”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This line can be read as the impermanence (түр зуурын чанар) of mental afflictions. In Mongolian epistemology, mind’s clarity (сэтгэлийн гэрэл) is naturally present, with afflictions as adventitious (түр зуурын) obscurations. Interpretation: This is a core epistemic principle: mind is fundamentally luminous (сэтгэл анхнаасаа гэгээн), and distortions are temporary (Агваанлувсан [1779] 2004).

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6. “Though suffering in this world is immense, it will be dispelled by deep peace and awakening.”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This line suggests the relation of suffering and knowledge. According to Mongolian Gelug-derived but distinctly localised teachings, true knowledge (танин мэдэхүй) reduces the roots of suffering. Cognitive insight is the medicine for the epistemic causes of dukkha. Interpretation: Here, “awakening” refers to correct mental realisation (бодит мэдлэг) that dissolves false duality and attachment-based suffering.

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7. “Beneath thick rock and stone, precious gold and treasure lie hidden.”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This can be read as an analogy of obscured wisdom. True knowing (жинхэнэ мэдэх) requires penetrating through layers of conceptual and karmic obstructions, just as treasure lies beneath stone. Interpretation: Mongolian Teachers describe the layers of samsaric ignorance as “stone-like veils” (хад мэт хий хоосрол) that must be drilled through by introspection (Л.Таян 1816 [1998]).

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8. “And beneath the black coals of heavy afflictions, the diamond-like light of wisdom lies hidden.”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): A metaphor for the indestructible clarity of innate wisdom. Wisdom (билиг) is vajra-like: unbreakable, brilliant, latent. Coals = afflictions (нисваанис), diamond = non-conceptual cognition. Interpretation: Epistemologically, this speaks to direct gnosis (танин мэдэхүйн гэгээрэл), which is not created, only revealed by purification.

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9. “As migratory birds leave, crying their sorrowful songs,”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This line evokes the temporality of sorrow and illusory self-projection. The bird’s song is lament, but it also signals departure, pointing to cyclic perception (ухаарал, өөрчлөлт). Interpretation: In Mongolian view, suffering “moves,” it is a mental season, not a fixed reality. Epistemology embraces emotional transience as a truth marker (С.Бат-Эрдэнэ 2021).

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10. “They mark the beginning of joyful songs when happiness returns.”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This line directly invokes the interdependence of cognition: sadness gives rise to joy. The mind constructs contrast — a principle in dependent origination (шалтгаан үрийн холбоо) applied to thought patterns. Interpretation: Mindfulness of impermanence generates balanced perception—neither clinging to pain nor joy, but perceiving both as parts of the cycle.

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11. “The evil ones of the past now live only as lines in history books,”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This line points to impermanence of identity and decay of deluded views. False perceptions and destructive agents are ultimately ephemeral mental imprints. Interpretation: Past wrong views (буруу үзэл) dissolve into collective memory. Mindstream outlasts form (Б.Түвшинтөгс 2015).

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12. “But in a turning of the great wheel of time, they return, young-faced, echoing prophecy.”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This line suggests the recurrence of deluded thought patterns in new forms — similar to non-linear cognition (үйлийн давтамж). Prophecy (эш) symbolises deep intuitive perception, rooted in long-term karmic insight. Interpretation: A warning that false views return if the root cause — ignorance — is not uprooted.

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13. “Never give up beneath the weight of any obstacle or obstruction.”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This line affirms the Mongolian Buddhist belief in the trainability of consciousness. Obstacles (саад) are not ultimate realities, but mental constructs. Interpretation:This idea relates to the capacity of mind to withstand distortion and move toward clarity through persistent discernment (Нарангэрэл 2022).

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14. “Even in this fleeting world—where life flips like a palm—many good causes arise.”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This line describes impermanence as an opportunity: fluctuating consciousness creates space for virtue. Perception is dynamic — thus, causes of awakening can be introduced at any moment. Interpretation: A Mongolian epistemic framing of the present moment as karmically fertile. Time’s volatility is the very reason hope is rational.

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15. “To offer your brave heart, unwaveringly in one direction,”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): This is a call for mental resolve: directing the intentionality of mind (сэтгэлийн чиглэл) toward an object of liberation. The line refers to focused perception (анхаарсан мэдрэхүй) and vow-based cognition. Interpretation: Cognitive determination (мэдрэхүйн зориулалт) generates conditions for realisation.

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16. “Is to sow the cause of supreme, unchanging peace.”

In terms of epistemology (Эпистемологийн утга): The final verse declares the epistemic goal: unshifting knowledge, synonymous with peace (амар амгалан). True knowing is not volatile — it is unchanging truth once realised. Interpretation: The result of sustained, correct cognition is clarity — the mind becomes free of conceptual fluctuation (Цэнд-Аюуш 2018).

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Bibliography (i) Mongolian Doha & Literary Style 

Бат-Очир, Ж. 2013. Монголын Бурханы Шашны Уран Зохиолын Түүхэн Товчоо. Улаанбаатар: ШУА. [Bat-Ochir, J. 2013. A Brief History of Mongolian Buddhist Literature. Ulaanbaatar: MAS.]

Батцэнгэл, Т. 2019. Монголын Номын Шүлгийн Шинэ Түүх. Улаанбаатар: Соёмбо хэвлэл [Battsengel, T. 2019. A New History of Mongolian Dharma Poetry. Ulaanbaatar: Soyombo Press.]

Норовсамбуу, С. 2018. Буддын Яруу Найргийн Онол, Монгол Доха. Улаанбаатар: Зуунмод Пресс. [Norovsambuu, S. 2018. Buddhist Poetics and Mongolian Doha Form. Ulaanbaatar: Zuunmod Press.]

Содном, С. 2016. Монгол Ардын Уран Зохиолын Сонгодог Хэлбэрүүд. Улаанбаатар: УХЭ. [Sodnom, S. 2016. Classical Forms of Mongolian Folk Literature. Ulaanbaatar: Education Press.]

Tsetsegjargal, D. 2020. “From Yurt to Verses: Nomadic Imagery in Contemporary Mongolian Dharma Poetry.” Steppe Literary Journal 7(2): 56–70.

Uuganbayar, N. 2022. “Modern Dharma Poetics in Post-Socialist Mongolia.” Inner Asia Review 12(1): 89–102.

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Bibliography (ii) Mongolian Nomadic Worldview

Bat-Erdene, S. 2021. Poetics of the Soul: Emotion and Ecology in Mongolian Dharma Literature. Ulaanbaatar: Arga Bilig Press. [С. Бат-Эрдэнэ. 2021. Сэтгэлийн яруу найраг: Ухаарал ба байгалийн дүрслэл. УБ: Арга Билэг хэвлэл.]

Battsengel, T. 2019. Cultural Resilience in Mongolian Buddhism. Ulaanbaatar: Soyombo Press. [Т. Батцэнгэл. 2019. Монгол Буддын Соёлын Сэргэлт. УБ: Соёмбо хэвлэл.]

Bayarsaikhan, U. 2019. Time, Space, and Memory in Steppe Belief Systems. Ulaanbaatar: Inner Cosmos Press. [У. Баярсайхан. 2019. Цаг хугацаа ба нүүдэлчний орон зайн ухагдахуун. УБ: Дотоод огторгуйн хэвлэл.]

Bumochir, D. 2013. Wolf Symbols and Political Consciousness in Mongolian Folklore. Ulaanbaatar: Nomadic Memory Project.

Erdenetsogt, S. 2022. Revolutions of Time: Karma, Return, and Prophecy in the Steppe Imagination. Ulaanbaatar: Gurban Sanaa Press.

Humphrey, Caroline, and David Sneath. 2012. The Clash of Cosmologies: Nomadic and Socialist Modernity in Mongolia. Leiden: Brill. (esp. pp. 89–115)

Munkh-Erdene, L. 2020. The Nomad’s Standpoint: Ethics Without Walls. Ulaanbaatar: Steppe Horizon Books.

Sanjdorj, B. 2021. The Lament and the Sky: Mongolian Elegy Across Generations. Ulaanbaatar: Skystring Publications.

Sneath, David. 2006. “Transacting and Enacting.” Inner Asia 8(1): 115–135.

Tsegmid, S. 2017. The Moving Tent: Philosophy of Nomadic Transience. Ulaanbaatar: Tuvshin Ger Press.

Tsetsegjargal, D. 2017. Hidden Riches: Cosmology in Mongolian Oral Epics. Ulaanbaatar: Bilig Academy.

Uuganbayar, N. 2021. To Know Where to Go: Nomadic Orientation and the Inner Compass. Ulaanbaatar: Oroi Press.

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Bibliography (iii) Mongolian Buddhist Epistemology

In terms of Buddhist Epistemology (Mongolian tradition) The references in this third bibliography have been selected for their emphasis on Mongolian Buddhist thought, non-Tibetan frameworks, and cognitive-emotional ethics in Mongolian Buddhist literature and philosophy.

Agvaanluvsan. [1779] 2004. The Third Jewel of the Wise. Translated by L. Chimeddorj. Ulaanbaatar: Institute of Buddhist Studies. [Original: Агваанлувсан. [1779] 2004. Мэргэн гэгээний гутгаар сувд. Орч. Л.Чимэд. УБ: ШУА.] Key concept: Layers of ignorance as veils. See pp. 96–101.

Bat-Erdene, S. 2021. Poetics of the Soul: Emotion and Ecology in Mongolian Dharma Literature. Ulaanbaatar: Arga Bilig Press. С. Бат-Эрдэнэ. 2021. Сэтгэлийн яруу найраг: Монголын номын уран зохиол дахь сэтгэл ба экологийн дүрслэл. УБ: Арга билгийн хэвлэл.] Key concept: Emotional seasons as thought-related metaphors. See pp. 51–60.

Battsengel, T. 2019. Renewal of Mongolian Buddhist Poetry in the Post-Socialist Era. Ulaanbaatar: Soyombo Press. [Т. Батцэнгэл. 2019. Шашны уран зохиолын шинэчлэл ба яруу найргийн сэргэлт. УБ: Соёмбо хэвлэл.] Key concept: Dormant wisdom as seed imagery in Mongolian Buddhist poetics. See pp. 34–38.

Lobsang Tayang. [1816] 1998. A Lamp for the Mind’s Path. Ulaanbaatar: Gandan Monastery [Лобсанг Таян. [1816] 1998. Сэтгэлийн номын оршвой. УБ: Гандантэгчэнлин хийд.] Key concept: “Mind is luminous by nature.” See pp. 70–72.

Narangerel, S. 2022. Between Knowing and Realization: Reflections on Buddhist Education in Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar: Wisdom River Publications. [С. Нарангэрэл. 2022. Мэдлэг ба танин мэдэхүйн зааг дээр: Монгол дахь буддын боловсролын эргэцүүлэл. УБ: Билгийн мөрөн хэвлэл.] Key concept: Differentiating intellectual and experiential knowing. See pp. 102–107.

Nyamjav, S. 2015. Cognition and the Four Schools of Mongolian Buddhism. Ulaanbaatar: Inner Mind Press. [С. Нямжав. 2015. Монгол дахь буддын дөрвөн урсгалын танин мэдэхүйн онол. УБ: Дотоод сэтгэлийн хэвлэл.] Key concept: Transformative knowing and false views. See pp. 88–93.

Tsend-Ayush, D. 2018. The Three Knowledges and the Crisis of Understanding. Ulaanbaatar: Mongolian Academy of Sciences. [Д. Цэнд-Аюуш. 2018. Гурван мэдлэг ба ойлгох чадварын хямрал. УБ: ШУА.] Key concept: Thought-related obscurations and deeper learning. See pp. 45–52.

Tüvshintugs, B. 2015. The Return of the Monasteries: Buddhism and Cultural Authority in Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar: Inner Knowledge Press. [Б. Түвшинтөгс. 2015. Сүм хийдийн дахин мандалт ба Монгол дахь соёлын эрх мэдэл. УБ: Дотоод мэдлэг хэвлэл.] Key concept: The fall and reappearance of ideological patterns. See pp. 112–117.

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A Word of Gratitude

This is my final article for 2025. The time has come to start preparing for Tsagaan Sar, the Mongolian Lunar New Year. To my readers, thank you for your ongoing encouragement and support – I am truly grateful. I take this opportunity to wish you all a safe and harmonious festive season and new year.