In the more formalised performative aspects of Mongolian Gelug Buddhist tradition, it is customary to begin one’s written work, especially poetic or scholastic compositions, with an explicit homage to one’s root Teacher and lineage masters. This practice is not simply formal; it embodies a deep-rooted epistemological and ethical principle that connects the act of writing to the flow of spiritual transmission. [1] [2] [3] More than a sign of humility, the dedication serves as an invocation and ethical anchor. [4] [5]
In liturgical translation from Mongolian phonetics (e.g. Zanabazar-ün töv üge, shavdag-un ayalgu, or lam-ün kele)[6], scholars are faced with a complex of choices regarding tone, including whether the interpretation is intended to be elevated, poetic, or minimal. These are not doctrinal terms, but stylistic signals[7] that suggest such tonal registers depending on socially-situated and ritual contexts (Elverskog 2006, 60–61; Bawden 1961; Kaplonski 2004).
Jamyang
The term Jamyang is loaded with a complex of embedded meanings[8] that can, in the first instance, be understood through the following lens of Mongolian Gelugpa lineage structure:
| English | Function | Mongolian Cyrillic |
| Jamyang (Manjushri) | Bodhisattva of Wisdom | Жамъянг (Манзушри) |
| Lobsang (Je Tsongkhapa) | Founder of the Gelug School and its lineage | Лувсанг (Цонкапа) |
| Dharma Protectors | Guardians of the Teachings | Дармагийн хамгаалагчид |
| Practitioners | Students of the Path | Бясалгалыг дагагчид |
In Mongolian liturgical usage, Jamyang (phonetic: Jam-yang, sometimes rendered Jamiyan, Jamyang or Jamba-yang) appears frequently as a name, a title, and an epithet.[9] Most prominently, it designates the Bodhisattva of Wisdom, Manzushir (Манзушир, Manjushri), whose qualities of eloquence (üge-yin chadvar), insight (oyun), and clarity are praised and invoked in ritual texts, lineage prayers, and earnest poetic requests.[10]
However, Jamyang is also commonly embedded in the names of historical figures, teachers, reincarnate lamas, and scholars, often as a marker of affiliation with wisdom-lineage ideals[11] or educational authority. In Mongolian, this name is phonetically absorbed and reused with considerable flexibility — such as in Jamyang choiji, Jamiyan genden, or Luvsang Jamiyan — blending doctrinal and personal significance. Unlike fixed scriptural identifiers[12], these usages are deeply shaped by vernacular pronunciation[13], regional chanting registers[14], and historical orthographic variants[15] (e.g. Soyombo, Cyrillic).
This fluidity creates notable challenges for liturgical translators. When Jamyang appears in a text, it may refer to the archetypal embodiment of wisdom, a human teacher carrying the name, or function metonymically[16] as a poetic shorthand for scholarly excellence or clarity of view.
Rendering all these instances into English as simply Manzushir or the Bodhisattva of Wisdom risks erasing this semantic richness, especially in poetic or devotional verse where ambiguity is intentional. Moreover, in Mongolian chant and phonetic practice, the name Jamyang is elongated, rhythmically placed, or paired with other titles in ways that resist fixed doctrinal translation.
This tension between sonic fidelity[17], semantic range, and interpretive restraint, lies at the heart of Mongolian liturgical translation, where the translator must weigh tone, register, and referent within a socially and ritually grounded field of meaning.
Luvsang
In Mongolian liturgical and monastic texts, the name Luvsang (лувсан, also phonetically rendered Lobsang, Lovsang, Luvsan, or Luvzang) appears frequently as a compound name for reincarnate teachers, scholars and monks. It is widely associated with virtues of disciplined wisdom and clarity of thought, often translated etymologically as noble intellect.
However, in Mongolian usage, it functions not merely as a doctrinal term, but also as a ritual name-marker, deeply embedded in poetic prayer cycles, lineage invocations, and philosophical verse. As noted by Pohl (2020), even in contemporary monasteries, such names are preserved through oral transmission and sacred copying practices, reaffirming their authority within the field of scholastic labour. The recurrence of Luvsang in texts attributed to figures such as Zanabazar (Öndör Gegeen) or in the names of Gelug-affiliated teachers shows how the phonetic form itself acts as a conduit of reverence and historical continuity (Majer, 2019; Srba, 2022).
The translational challenge lies in the polyvalent status[18] of Luvsang. When encountered in liturgical translation, it may refer to a specific historical figure, a stylised poetic referent[19], or a generalized ideal of Buddhist scholarship. As Karenina Kollmar-Paulenz (2018) observes, names within Mongolian Buddhist historiography often oscillate between individual identity and religious function, especially when integrated into praise verses.
Translating Luvsang simply as Good Mind in such contexts risks introducing a semantic precision[20] that distorts the social and ritual usage of the term. In many verses, the poetic function of the name — its syllabic balance[21]and sonic resonance — takes priority over doctrinal specificity (Elverskog, 2006). Thus, retaining the phonetic integrity of Luvsang is often the most faithful strategy, particularly in elevated or poetic liturgical registers where naming itself enacts veneration (Teleki, 2021).
_____________________
Notes
[1] Honouring the teacher ensures that any insights or merits generated through the text are understood as dependent on the guidance and blessings of the lineage, thus mitigating egoic claims to authorship.
[2] As Kollmar-Paulenz (2018) notes, Mongolian Buddhist historiography often merges the genealogical descent of Mongolian nobles with the transmission lines of Gelugpa teachings, reinforcing the social and spiritual authority of the Teacher-disciple relationship.
[3] In modern Mongolian Buddhist literature, such dedications reflect a localised continuity of Tsongkhapa’s emphasis on guru devotion (bla ma’i rten ’brel) through a Mongolian lens, especially in Sükhbaatar and Dundgovi Aimags (cf. to Zava Damdin’s place of birth, his birth family’s “home country” and his monastery’s location, respectively).
[4] The formal structure of Mongolian Buddhist texts commonly begins with Teacher invocations, not only as devotional gestures but also as authorising statements for engaging in doctrinal interpretation. This embedded ritual opening is consistent with a broader pedagogical model in Mongolian Gelugpa monasteries, where students are trained not merely in memorisation but in the proper placement of lineage within their speech and writing.
[5] The Department of Ethnology at the University of Freiburg has further affirmed this point through recent field studies on monastic literary composition, emphasising the enduring importance of lineage invocation in Mongolian epistemic culture as a safeguard for the authenticity and ethical framing of Buddhist knowledge transmission (Teleki, 2021; Pohl, 2020).
[6] Recent scholarship has deepened our understanding of how phonetic liturgical forms, especially those associated with figures like Zanabazar, function ritually thereby anchoring Mongolian-language Buddhism in scriptural, performative, and mnemonic traditions (Majer 2019; Srba 2022; Bareja-Starzyńska 2006).
_____________________
Terminology Set
[7] Stylistic signals, in the context of Mongolian liturgical translation, are deliberate choices in tone, register, rhythm, or phrasing that cue the reader or listener to the intended devotional, poetic, or hierarchical function of the text—indicating whether a passage is elevated, instructional, intimate, or performative in nature.
[8] Embedded meanings are layered or implicit messages, values, or associations woven into a text, image, or practice that are not stated directly but can be revealed through contextual, cultural, or symbolic interpretation.
[9] Epithet is a descriptive word or phrase expressing a characteristic quality of a person, thing, or deity, often used repeatedly in poetic or liturgical contexts.
[10] Supplications are earnest, often humble, verbal or written appeals — typically addressed to a deity, teacher, or enlightened being — expressing devotion, seeking blessings, protection, or spiritual guidance.
[11] Wisdom-lineage ideals refer to the transmitted values, virtues, and realisations upheld within a spiritual or philosophical lineage, emphasising not only doctrinal continuity but also lived insight, ethical conduct, and the refinement of understanding passed from teacher to disciple.
[12] Fixed scriptural identifiers are stable, often formulaic names, titles, or phrases used across canonical texts to consistently refer to key figures, doctrines, or sources—ensuring doctrinal clarity, lineage continuity, and recognisability within a religious or textual traditi
[13] Vernacular pronunciation refers to the way words are spoken in everyday local speech, often diverging from classical, standardized, or liturgical forms, and reflecting the phonetic habits, accents, and oral traditions of a particular community or region.
[14] Regional chanting registers are distinct vocal styles, melodic patterns, and rhythmic modes of liturgical recitation specific to a geographic or cultural area, shaped by local language, monastic tradition, and aesthetic preference within broader Buddhist or ritual practices.
[15] Historical orthographic variants are different spellings or written forms of a word that have appeared across time, reflecting changes in writing conventions, scripts, or linguistic norms within a particular language or textual tradition.
[16] Metonymically refers to the use of one word or expression to stand in for another that is closely associated with it, where meaning is transferred through relation, not resemblance — as in saying “the throne” to mean royal authority.
[17] Sonic fidelity refers to the accuracy and faithfulness with which sound—especially tone, rhythm, and pronunciation—is preserved or represented, often in contexts of oral transmission, liturgical chanting, or phonetic transcription of ritual and other related texts.
[18] Polyvalent status refers to the capacity of a symbol, figure, or text to hold and convey multiple, layered meanings simultaneously across different contexts.
[19] A stylised poetic referent is a deliberately crafted phrase or image in a poetic or liturgical context that points to a person, place, quality, or idea in a symbolic, elevated, or indirect way — often drawing on cultural metaphors, devotional tone, or lineage-specific aesthetics to evoke rather than state meaning.
[20] Semantic precision refers to the exactness and clarity with which meaning is conveyed through words or phrases, ensuring that the intended concept is accurately and unambiguously expressed, especially in translation or scholarly analysis.
[21] Syllabic balance refers to the intentional structuring of poetic or liturgical lines so that the number of syllables is rhythmically consistent or aesthetically harmonious, supporting chantability, flow, and memorability in oral or ritual performance.
_____________________
Further Reading
Bawden, Charles R. The Modern History of Mongolia. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1961.
Bareja-Starzyńska, Agata. “Buddhism in Present-Day Mongolia.” In Mongols from Country to City: Floating Boundaries, Pastoralism and City Life in the Mongol Lands, edited by Ole Bruun and Li Narangoa, 229–245. Copenhagen: NIAS Press, 2006.
Elverskog, Johan. Our Great Qing: The Mongols, Buddhism and the State in Late Imperial China. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2006.
Kaplonski, Christopher. Truth, History and Politics in Mongolia: The Memory of Heroes. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004.
Kollmar-Paulenz, Karénina. “History Writing and the Making of Mongolian Buddhism.” Archiv für Religionsgeschichte 20, no. 1 (2018): 161–178. https://doi.org/10.1515/arege-2018-0009 [Коллмар-Пауленц, К. “Түүх бичлэг ба Монгол Буддын шашны бүрэлдэхүй.” Шашны түүхийн архив 20, №1 (2018): 161–178.]
Majer, Zsuzsa. “Three Ritual Prayers by Öndör Gegeen Zanabazar.” In Sources of Mongolian Buddhism, edited by Vesna A. Wallace, 329–349. New York: Oxford University Press, 2019.
Pohl, Katharina. “Sacred Copying and Scholastic Labour in Contemporary Mongolian Monasteries.” Department of Ethnology, University of Freiburg, 2020. [Поль, Катарина. “Орчин үеийн Монгол хийдүүд дэх судар хуулбарлах ариун үйл ба номын хөдөлмөр.” Фрайбургийн Их Сургуулийн Угсаатны зүйн тэнхим, 2020.]
Srba, Ondřej. “Two Mongolian Ritual Texts from the Early 19th Century.” Archiv Orientální 90, no. 2 (2022): 203–230.
Teleki, Krisztina. “Renouncing the World and Taking Ordination: Family Ties of Mongolian Buddhist Novices.” Távol-keleti Tanulmányok 2021(1): 45–67. [Телеки, Крисзтина. “Дэлхийг орхих ба сахил хүртэхүй: Монгол Буддын шавь нарын гэр бүлийн холбоо.” Зүүн Азийн Судлал, 2021(1): 45–67.]
__________________________________________________________
If there are any errors of judgement in this article, they are of my own making.
For these, I humbly apologise.
__________________________________________________________
Refer to the INDEX for other articles that may be of interest.
End of transcript.
© 2013-2026. CP in Mongolia. “Letters from Mongolia 10: Homage” is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. ScholarGPT provided an additional channel for research. Documents linked from this page may be subject to other restrictions. Posted: 7 January 2026. Last updated: 7 January 2026.